Cultural Theories and Practices

In a cross-cultural context, the AUMT (Gudykunst, 1988) refers to communication
between strangers, usually those from different cultural groups. Individuals experience
uncertainty because they are not able to predict others’ culturally determined
attitudes, feelings, and beliefs. When the individuals experience uncertainty at too high
a level, they feel uncomfortable and try to reduce uncertainty by searching for information
about the strangers. They also may avoid encounters with strangers and even
end the interaction. As a result, the individuals may develop stereotypes and use them
to predict other people’s behavior. This leads to misinterpretation of messages and
misunderstanding. On the other hand, when the individuals experience uncertainty
and anxiety at too low a level, they may be bored and not pay attention to interaction
with strangers. Consequently they may miss important cues and behave ineffectively.
In general, effective communication is achieved when the levels of uncertainty and
anxiety are between too high and too low. However, in interactions with strangers
who are culturally different, the levels of uncertainty and anxiety are usually too high to
achieve effective intercultural communication.
Several strategies can be used to reduce uncertainty, such as information seeking,
controlling anxiety, or adapting to new situations and people. In terms of information
seeking, people can adapt three strategies: (1) passive strategies – observe personally
or through mass media or do nothing and hope that things will become clearer,
(2) active strategies – seek information about others from outside sources (e.g., ask
other strangers about the group), and (3) interactive strategies – seek direct interactions
and communication with people about whom uncertainty exists to obtain
information about them and be able to predict their behavior (Berger, 1979).
Figure 3.7 shows that intercultural communication is influenced by anxiety and
uncertainty that in turn are influenced by a large number of variables, such as selfconcept,
motivation, cognitive capacity, social categorization, situational processes,
connections to strangers, and mindfulness. A change in one of these variables affects
anxiety and uncertainty and thus intercultural communication. For example, having
poor knowledge of locals and their traditions and customs, as well as experiencing
foreign language difficulties, decreases a sense of security and emotional stability of
tourists and make their intercultural interaction and communication with locals less
effective. However, an increase in similarity, attractiveness, and liking of locals reduces
uncertainty and anxiety of tourists and makes their intercultural communication more
effective. In high-uncertainty-avoidance cultures, people are usually highly anxious
about interacting with strangers, whereas in low uncertainty avoidance cultures people
are not threatened by uncertainty and are willing and able to adapt communication
when interacting with strangers.

Figure 3.7
Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory (AUMT).


Source: Adapted from Gudykunst,W. (2005). An anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM)
theory of effective communication. In W. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about
intercultural communication.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Guirdham, M. (1999). Communication across cultures.
Hundmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: MacMillian Press.